Bibliography · Countering & Dismantling Islamophobia

References

Full citations for the research, reports, and sources referenced throughout this toolkit.

43 sources, alphabetical by author.

Ahmadi, S., D. Cole, S. A. Atashi, M. Salazar, M. Sanchez, and Y. Liu. Sense of Belonging and Mattering. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, Center for Education, Identity and Social Justice, 2019. https://socialjustice.usc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Sense-of-Belonging-and-Mattering.pdf.
Alimahomed-Wilson, Sabrina. “When the FBI Knocks: Faith, the State, and Muslims.” Critical Sociology 45, no. 6 (2020): 871–87. https://csrr.rutgers.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/when-the-fbi-knocks.pdf.
Alsultany, Evelyn. “Antisemitism and Islamophobia: The University’s Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Response to October 7, 2023.” Journal of Palestine Studies 53, no. 4 (2024): 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/0377919X.2025.2455077.
American Council on Education. “Congress Moves to Slash Higher Ed Funding in Budget Showdown.” March 3, 2025. https://www.acenet.edu/News-Room/Pages/Congress-Moves-Slash-Funding-Budget-Showdown.aspx
Ansary, Nadia S. Religious-Based Bullying: Insights on Research and Evidence-Based Best Practices from the National Interfaith Anti-Bullying Summit. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding and American Muslim Health Professionals, 2018. https://ispu.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/ISPU-AMHP-Religious-Based-Bullying.pdf.
Aziz, Sahar. “Confronting Liberal Islamophobia.” American Constitution Society Expert Forum, September 7, 2022. https://www.acslaw.org/expertforum/confronting-liberal-islamophobia.
Beutel, Alejandro J., and Saeed Khan. Manufacturing Bigotry: A State-by-State Legislative Effort to Push Back Against 2050 by Targeting Muslims and Other Minorities. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2014. https://ispu.org/research-areas/islamophobia.
Browne, Simone. Dark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015.
Center for the Study of Organized Hate. US-Israel War on Iran and the Rise in Hate Against Muslim Americans. Washington, DC: CSOH, 2026. https://www.csohate.org/2026/03/09/us-israel-iran-war-islamophobia.
Chouhoud, Youssef. Banking While Muslim: The Hidden Costs of Being a Muslim in America. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2024. https://ispu.org/research-areas/banking-while-muslim.
Council on American-Islamic Relations – California. 2024 Campus Climate Report: Examining Islamophobia on California College Campuses. CAIR-CA, 2024. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1pfvEWM59IL9lGJ0NzF8R9QC-uHNAlTNi/view?usp=drive_link.
Council on American-Islamic Relations – New Jersey. Back to School Resource Guide 2025-2026. Newark, NJ: CAIR-NJ, 2025. https://cair-nj.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/2025-26-BACK-TO-SCHOOL-GUIDE-2.pdf.
Council on American-Islamic Relations – Texas. The Illusive Inclusion: Islamophobia, Discrimination, and Lack of Accommodation in Public Schools. Austin, TX: CAIR-TX, 2022. https://www.cairtx.org/images/Austin_Bullying_Report_2022.pdf.
Diouf, Sylviane A. Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas. New York: New York University Press, 2013.
Ghaffar-Siddiqui, Sabreena, and Nicole Steward-Streng. Hindu Nationalism in America: Assessing the Influence of Hindutva Ideology in the U.S. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2024. https://ispu.org/reports-and-analysis/report-hindu-nationalism-in-the-u-s.
Husain, Atiya. “Official Antiracism and the Limits of ‘Islamophobia.’” Social Identities 27, no. 6 (2021): 611–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2020.1859362.
Ikramullah, Erum. Not Immune: Some Muslims in America Internalize Islamophobia. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2019. https://ispu.org/reports-and-analysis/not-immune-some-muslims-in-america-internalize-islamophobia.
Ikramullah, Erum. Religious Groups’ Views on Ceasefire: American Muslims, Especially Students, Most Likely to Experience Religious Discrimination. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2024. https://ispu.org/reports-and-analysis/views-on-ceasefire.
Institute for Social Policy and Understanding. “Covering American Muslims Objectively and Creatively: A Guide for Media Professionals.” https://ispu.org/toolkits-and-guides/journalists.
International Association of Genocide Scholars. “IAGS Resolution on the Situation in Gaza.” Resolution, August 31, 2025. https://genocidescholars.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/IAGS-Resolution-on-Gaza-FINAL.pdf.
Kearns, Emily M., Anthony E. Betus, and Anthony F. Lemieux. “Why Do Some Terrorist Attacks Receive More Media Attention Than Others?” Justice Quarterly 36, no. 6 (2019): 985–1022. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2018.1524507.
Khan, A., K. Pieper, S. Smith, A. Case, and S. Wheeler. Erased or Extremists? The Stereotypical View of Muslims in Popular Episodic Series. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 2022. https://assets.uscannenberg.org/docs/aii-study-muslim-erased-or-extremists-20220901.pdf.
Khan, A., K. Pieper, S. Smith, M. Choueitie, K. Yao, and A. Tofarn. Missing & Maligned: The Reality of Muslims in Popular Global Movies. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 2021. https://assets.uscannenberg.org/docs/aii-muslim-rep-global-film-2021-06-09.pdf.
Mahmood, Azka, and Elizabeth A. Yates. Countering Anti-Muslim Opposition to Mosque and Islamic Center Construction and Expansion: Recommendations for Mosque Leaders, Policymakers, Interfaith and Community Allies, and More. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2022. https://21702012.fs1.hubspotusercontent-na1.net/hubfs/21702012/Research/Mosque_Opposition.pdf.
Majid, Dania. Anti-Palestinian Racism: Naming, Framing and Manifestations. Toronto: Arab Canadian Lawyers Association, 2022. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/61db30d12e169a5c45950345/t/627dcf83fa17ad41ff217964/1652412292220/Anti-Palestinian+Racism-+Naming%2C+Framing+and+Manifestations.pdf.
Miller, Erin. Ideological Motivations of Terrorism in the United States, 1970–2016. College Park, MD: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), University of Maryland, 2017. https://www.start.umd.edu/pubs/START_IdeologicalMotivationsOfTerrorismInUS_Nov2017.pdf.
Mogahed, Dalia. “Islamophobia Is Made Up.” The Islamic Monthly, September 25, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20240603065022/http:/www.theislamicmonthly.com/islamophobia-is-made-up/.
Mogahed, Dalia, and Erum Ikramullah. American Muslim Poll 2022: A Politics and Pandemic Status Report. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2022. https://ispu.org/poll/american-muslim-poll-2022-full-report.
Mogahed, Dalia, and Youssef Chouhoud. American Muslim Poll 2018: Pride and Prejudice. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2018. https://ispu.org/poll/american-muslim-poll-2018-full-report.
Murrar, Sohad, Lina Saud, and Zahra Mirnajafi. Stereotypes on Screen: The Effects of Muslim Portrayals in Entertainment Media on Attitudes toward Democracy and Policy. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2025. https://ispu.org/research-areas/stereotypes-on-screen.
Naik, Raqib H., and Eviane Leidig. Islamophobia and the New York City Mayoral Election: An Analysis of Islamophobic and Xenophobic Narratives on X Targeting Zohran Mamdani. Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Organized Hate, 2025. https://www.csohate.org/2025/11/03/islamophobia-and-new-york-city-mayoral-election.
Ogan, Christine, Lars Willnat, Rosemary Pennington, and Manaf Bashir. “The Rise of Anti-Muslim Prejudice: Media and Islamophobia in Europe and the United States.” International Communication Gazette 76, no. 1 (2014): 27–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048513504048.
Proctor, Andrew, Alex Flores, and Dalia Mogahed. Latino Attitudes toward American Muslims and Islam. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2023. https://ispu.org/reports-and-analysis/latino-views.
Rao, Kumar, and Carey Shenkman. Equal Treatment?: Measuring the Legal and Media Responses to Ideologically Motivated Violence in the United States. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2018. https://ispu.org/research-areas/equal-treatment-ispu.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979.
Saleem, Muniba, Stefanie Prot, Craig A. Anderson, and Anthony F. Lemieux. “Exposure to Muslims in Media and Support for Public Policies Harming Muslims.” Communication Research 44, no. 6 (2017): 841–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215619214.
Selod, Saher. “Gendered Racialization: Muslim American Men and Women’s Encounters with Racialized Surveillance.” In The Mechanisms of Racialization Beyond the Black/White Binary, 48–65. New York: Routledge, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429296222-4.
Selod, Saher, Dalia Mogahed, Erum Ikramullah, and Sarah Baker. American Muslim Poll 2025: Evolving Electorate, Enduring Challenges. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, 2025. https://ispu.org/poll/american-muslim-poll-2025-full-report-1.
Selod, Saher, Inaash Islam, and Steve Garner. A Global Racial Enemy: Muslims and 21st-Century Racism. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2024.
Shaheen, Jack G. “Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 588 (2003): 171–93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1049860.
Shaver, John H., Chris G. Sibley, Danny Osborne, and J. Bulbulia. “News Exposure Predicts Anti-Muslim Prejudice.” PLOS One 12, no. 3 (2017): e0174606. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0174606.
Steward-Streng, Nicole. Perceptions of American Muslims and Islam among Black Christians: Findings, Recommendations, and Implications for Interfaith Engagement. Washington, DC: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding and Muslim Wellness Foundation, 2025. https://ispu.org/research-areas/black-christian-views-brief.
Stone, Meighan. Snake and Stranger: Media Coverage of Muslims and Refugee Policy. Cambridge, MA: Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, Harvard Kennedy School, June 2017. https://shorensteincenter.org/resource/media-coverage-muslims-refugee-policy.

ISPU's Definition

What is Islamophobia?

Islamophobia is a form of discrimination, bias, and racism against Muslims and consequently those who appear to be Muslim that relies on stereotypes of Muslims and Islam that can result in their unequal treatment. Islamophobia is structural and can be seen in American social structures, laws and policies, media narratives, and ideologies. It also exists in interpersonal interactions between individuals that result in the unjust treatment of Muslims and those misidentified as Muslims in society.

— Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU)

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